- a. English
- b. Devanagari
- c. Tamil-Brahmi
- d. Granta
The script used in the Sangam Age was Tamil-Brahmi, an early form of writing in the Tamil region.
c
- a. Deepa vamsa
- b. Arthasastra
- c. Mahavamsa
- d. Indica
The Mahavamsa is a Sri Lankan chronicle in Pali that refers to contacts and traders from South India, including merchants and horse traders.
c
- a. (i) is correct
- b. (ii) is correct
- c. (ii) and (iii) are correct
- d. (iii) and (iv) is correct
(ii) and (iii) are correct. (i) is incorrect — the book states coins as medium of exchange were introduced during the Sangam (Early Historic) period, not the Mesolithic. (ii) is correct — Prakrit was used by common people in North India in Mauryan times. (iii) is correct — the Vienna papyrus (2nd century AD) mentions trade from Muziri (Muciri). (iv) is incorrect — the concept of Thinai is given in the Tholkappiyam (Tamil grammar), not Pathupaattu.
c
Inscriptions (epigraphs) are texts engraved on durable materials such as stone, copper plates, coins and rings and serve as primary historical evidence.
Inscriptions (epigraphs)
- a. Evidence of iron smelting has been found in Kodumanal and Guttur.
- b. Periplus of Erythren Sea mentions about the pepper trade with India.
- c. Punch marked coins are the earliest coins used in India mostly made of gold.
- d. The Sangam Age has its roots in the Bronze Age.
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Periplus of the Red Sea) describes trade between the Roman world and South India and mentions the pepper trade. (a) is likely true for Kodumanal but the site name 'Guttur' requires confirmation; (c) is incorrect—punch-marked coins were usually silver; (d) is incorrect—Sangam society is linked to the Iron Age.
b
Concise points: 1) Material culture fills gaps left by texts. 2) Dates and chronology through stratigraphy and artifacts. 3) Evidence of trade via imported pottery and coins. 4) Evidence of industries (metallurgy, bead-making) and urban centres. 5) Inscriptions provide names, titles and administrative details. Examples from the chapter illustrate these contributions.
Archaeological sites preserve material remains (tools, pottery, coins, inscriptions, buildings) that allow reconstruction of past societies. They provide evidence about economy (agriculture, crafts, trade), technology (metallurgy, pottery), social life (settlements, burial practices), political organization (fortifications, inscriptions with royal names), and external contacts (imported goods, foreign coins). Examples: Kodumanal (iron-working and crafts), Arikamedu (overseas trade with Rome), and Mangulam Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions (early literacy).
Points to include: 1) Dominance of the three crowned kings and their territorial bases. 2) Role of chieftains and feudal relationships. 3) Patronage of Sangam poets and use of literature for political legitimacy. 4) Control of ports and trade (impact on wealth and foreign relations). 5) Decentralized character with influential local institutions.
The political powers of Tamilakam shaped Sangam polity through the presence of three major dynasties (Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas) and numerous chieftains, leading to a polity characterized by regional kingship, patronage of poets, inter-kingdom warfare, and control over trade routes and ports. Local assemblies and village councils also influenced governance. Royal patronage promoted literature and trade; rivalry among powers affected alliances and polity but did not produce a single centralized state.
Excavation is the systematic digging of archaeological sites to recover artifacts and other material evidence for the study of past societies.
Excavation (archaeological excavation)
- a. The Cheras ruled over Kaveri delta and their capital was Uraiyur.
- b. The Maangulam Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions mention the King Karikalan.
- c. The terms Vanikan and Nigama appeared in Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions were different types of merchants.
- d. Salt merchants were called Vanikars and they travelled in bullock carts along with their family and they issued square copper coins with images of a tiger.
Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions record terms such as 'Vanikan' and 'Nigama' referring to categories of merchants/traders. (a) is incorrect — Cheras were based in the western coast (Kerala) not the Kaveri delta and Uraiyur was a Chola capital. (b) needs verification — Maangulam inscriptions list donors/workmen names but specific royal references are uncertain. (d) mixes several claims and is not fully supported.
c
Concise points: 1) Show existence of monetary economy and trade networks. 2) Help identify rulers and political units via symbols/legends. 3) Inform on metallurgy and economic wealth. 4) Provide dating evidence when found stratigraphically. 5) Indicate foreign contacts (Roman/West Asian coins).
Coins are important because they provide evidence for trade links (local and foreign coins), political authority (royal symbols and names), economic practices (metals, denominations), chronology (dating hoards and layers), and cultural contacts (iconography, motifs). Roman coins and punch-marked pieces found at sites like Arikamedu and Kodumanal attest to overseas trade and internal monetary use.
Key contributions: employment and specialization, domestic supply of goods, export earnings from high-demand products (pearls, pepper, textiles), technological advancement (iron smelting), and linkage between rural production and urban/port trade.
Industries and crafts (weaving, metallurgy, bead-making, pottery, salt production, pearl fishing) provided employment, produced goods for local use and export, generated revenue for rulers and merchants, and supported urban growth and overseas trade (e.g., beads, textiles, metalwares exported via ports like Muziris/Arikamedu).
The Arthashastra, attributed to Kautilya (Chanakya), is a classic treatise on statecraft and economy from the Mauryan period.
Arthashastra
Include evidence of irrigated agriculture, settlement patterns, references in Sangam literature to farming and land fertility, and the role of agriculture in sustaining populations and enabling craft specialization.
Reasons: fertile river valleys and widespread irrigation/tank systems supported paddy cultivation; literary and archaeological evidence describes farming, crops (rice, millets), and agrarian settlements; agriculture provided food surplus to support towns, crafts and trade.
Thinai (also spelt Tinai) is the classical Tamil poetic concept referring to particular landscape/eco-zones each associated with specific emotions and modes of life.
Thinai (Tinai)
Mention Periplus and Ptolemy references, archaeological finds (Roman coins, amphorae), thriving ports, export commodities (pepper, pearls, textiles), and the impact on urbanization and political power.
Examples: trade with the Roman world (Periplus, Roman coins at Arikamedu) exporting pepper, pearls, textiles; ports like Muziris and Arikamedu became prosperous; imported items (Roman pottery, Mediterranean goods) show wide contacts; wealth from trade increased royal revenues and cultural exchanges.
The term 'Yavana(s)' in Indian sources broadly referred to western peoples such as Greeks and later extended to Romans and West Asians.
Yavanas
Correct matches: 1. Epigraphy — the study of inscriptions (1→4). 2. Chronicle — a narrative text presenting important historical events (2→1). 3. Pastoralism — nomadic people earning livelihood by rearing cattle (3→5). 4. Cameo — an ornament made in precious stone (4→3). 5. Arikamedu — a Sangam Age port (5→2).
1-4, 2-1, 3-5, 4-3, 5-2