Every syllabus topic, revised in one card

European power grew from coastal trade to territorial rule: Vasco da Gama reached Calicut in 1498, Albuquerque took Goa in 1510, and the English Company received its 1600 charter. Plassey defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah in 1757; the 1858 Act then replaced Company government with Crown rule.

• Bases: Dutch–Pulicat, Danes–Tranquebar, French–Pondicherry, English–Fort St George at Madras.
• Aix-la-Chapelle restored Madras after the First Carnatic War; the Third Anglo-Mysore War ended with Seringapatam.
• Cabinet Mission proposed Union–groups–provinces; Constitution drafting took 2 years, 11 months, 18 days.

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Food security combines availability, access and affordability. FCI procurement, storage and buffers feed PDS; MSP is the government purchase floor recommended by CACP to prevent distress sales. Green Revolution wheat and rice depended on HYVs, irrigation, fertiliser and credit.

• NABARD supports farm/rural credit; PMFBY covers calamity, pest and disease loss.
• Yellow Revolution raised oilseeds; rotation preserves soil and checks pests.
• Warehouses reduce post-harvest loss; employment income improves food access.

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Article 368 generally needs each House's total-membership majority plus two-thirds present and voting; federal changes also need half the States. The 42nd added Duties/changed Preamble; the 44th removed property from Fundamental Rights, leaving six.

• 52nd–Tenth Schedule; 61st–vote at 18; 73rd–Panchayats; 86th–Article 21A; 101st–GST.
• Article 51A now contains 11 duties; Eleventh Schedule lists 29 Panchayat subjects.
• An Article 352 proclamation needs Parliament's approval within one month.

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RBI has operated since 1935 and was nationalised in 1949; it issues notes, serves government and controls money and credit. Repo supplies banks against securities, reverse repo absorbs their funds, and higher rates or reserves generally restrict lending.

• CRR is cash at RBI; SLR is liquid assets; MPC uses CPI target 4% ±2%.
• SEBI regulates securities; fourteen banks were nationalised in 1969.
• Jan Dhan expands household accounts; rural banking in the bank connects NABARD with South Indian banks.

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GDP totals final output produced within domestic territory. Value added prevents double counting; market-price GDP equals factor-cost GDP plus net indirect taxes. Depreciation converts gross to net; NNP at factor cost is National Income and division by population gives per-capita income.

• Transfers pay for no current output; primary sector includes agriculture, forestry, fishing and mining.
• HDI combines health, education and GNI per head.
• Gini runs from 0 equality to 1 extreme inequality; potential GDP is sustainable full-employment output.

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Bhakti made personal devotion central: Tamil Nayanmars followed Shiva and Alvars, including Andal, followed Vishnu; Kabir preferred a formless divine. Chishti Sufis welcomed ordinary people through love, charity and service, and sama denoted devotional listening with music.

• Adi Shankara taught Advaita; Ramanuja taught Vishishtadvaita.
• Moinuddin Chishti's celebrated shrine is at Ajmer; Tukaram wrote Marathi Abhangs.
• Din-i-Ilahi was Akbar's syncretic spiritual order connected with universal peace.

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Cells use nucleus for control, mitochondria for energy and chloroplast for photosynthesis. Four main tissue types organise the body; pancreas releases insulin. Red cells carry oxygen/carbon dioxide, and nephron is the kidney unit.

• Xylem carries water; phloem sucrose/food; stomata manage gases and water loss.
• Humans have 46 somatic chromosomes; Landsteiner identified ABO groups.
• Carcinoma is epithelial cancer; C4 physiology suppresses photorespiration.

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Fiscal policy uses tax, spending and debt. Fiscal deficit is expenditure minus revenue and non-debt capital receipts; revenue deficit is revenue expenditure minus revenue receipts. Capital expenditure creates assets, whereas routine revenue spending normally does not.

• Income tax is direct; GST is an indirect supply tax introduced 1 July 2017.
• Borrowings are capital receipts/liabilities; progressive rates rise with income.
• Zero-based budgets restart justification; disinvestment sells PSU equity; Article 280 provides Finance Commission.

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The Seventh Schedule divides Union, State and Concurrent Lists. Both levels legislate concurrently, but Union law normally prevails on conflict; Parliament receives residuary power. State subjects include police, public order and local government.

• Article 263 enables Inter-State Council; Finance Commission normally recurs every five years.
• Article 200 allows gubernatorial assent, return, withholding or presidential reservation; note the bank's six-month timing question.
• Evaluate statement combinations from exact constitutional allocation.

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Atomic number counts protons. Acids lie below pH 7 and redden blue litmus; acid plus base neutralises. Common formulas include NaCl and H₂O. Brass is copper-zinc, bronze copper-tin; silver is metal and mercury liquid.

• Wood combustion uses oxygen; rust needs oxygen and moisture.
• Graphite conducts, chromium plates, sodium reacts vigorously and metals are malleable.
• Greenhouse/acid-rain gases and nitrate/phosphate eutrophication are tested chemical effects.

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The Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers were the Muvendar. Rajaraja Chola I built Thanjavur's Brihadisvara Temple; Rajendra Chola I founded Gangaikonda Cholapuram and attacked Srivijaya by sea. Uttiramerur records Kudavolai village selection, and Chola bronzes perfected Shiva as Nataraja.

• Pandya capital was Madurai; Cheran Senguttuvan is linked to Kannagi/Pattini, and Perum Cheral Irumporai was a Chera ruler.
• The Shore Temple is Pallava, not Chola; Velu Nachiyar resisted from Sivaganga.
• Keep the two Cholas distinct: Rajaraja–Brihadisvara; Rajendra–Gangaikonda Cholapuram/Srivijaya.

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Summer low pressure over heated India draws moist south-west winds, first onto Kerala. Mountain uplift cools air into rain and leaves a leeward rain shadow. Monsoon's core feature is seasonal wind reversal.

• Positive IOD usually aids summer rain; parallel Aravallis give Rajasthan little uplift.
• Western Ghats wet west/dry interior; loo is a north-west hot wind.
• North-east/retreating monsoon crosses Bay and rains on Tamil Nadu's Coromandel coast.

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Base each answer on stated words. Locate the question's noun, trace purpose markers such as 'so that', and replace vocabulary with the meaning that preserves context. 'Although' signals contrast; negative questions require finding what the passage excludes.

• Banyan: aerial roots become trunks, canopy shelters animals, villages gather there.
• Ramu rose before dawn, grew paddy and earned respect; toil means hard work.
• Sapling means young tree; late library aided revision; museum notice required silence.

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Constitutional bodies include CAG 148, Finance Commission 280, Election Commission 324, PSCs 315 and Attorney General 76. NHRC and Lokpal are statutory. Census administration belongs to the Registrar General under the Home Ministry.

• President appoints CAG; reports reach Parliament/State House through President/Governor.
• Election Commission is constitutional under Article 324; UPSC and TNPSC recruit for Union/State services.
• RTI Act 2005 Section 8 contains exemptions; NHRC rests on statute.

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Translate a table or chart into totals before calculating. Range=max−min, mean=sum/count, mode=most frequent, fraction=part/total and percentage change=(new−old)/old×100. For a rank from the other end use total−known rank+1.

• Apply each percentage to the stated base; remaining category = total−known categories.
• Budget share = percentage×income; average percentage equals mean when all maxima match.
• Check units and distinguish increase amount from final value.

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Aibak began the Mamluk line; Iltutmish issued the silver tanka; Alauddin Khalji regulated markets to fund a cash-paid army; Muhammad bin Tughlaq moved the capital to Daulatabad. Babur's artillery victory over Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526 founded Mughal power.

• Akbar used Mansabdari and Todar Mal's revenue arrangements; Mughal rank or payment could be expressed in gold coinage.
• Farrukhsiyar's 1717 farman aided Company trade; Shah Jahan built the Red Fort.
• Harihara and Bukka founded Vijayanagara; Krishnadevaraya led its zenith; Ibrahim Adil Shah II wrote Kitab-i-Nauras.

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Part IV Directive Principles drew from Ireland and the 1935 Instrument of Instructions; they guide government without court enforcement. Article 44 seeks uniform civil law and 40 village Panchayats. Article 51A duties drew on the USSR and Swaran Singh Committee.

• Freedom of religion is a Fundamental Right, not DPSP.
• Duties include freedom-struggle ideals, scientific temper and environmental care.
• Separate enforceable rights, non-justiciable State goals and citizen duties.

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Risk reduction starts with safe building, land controls, warning, supplies and evacuation. Richter measures earthquake magnitude; during shaking drop-cover-hold. Undersea earthquakes or disturbance can trigger tsunami.

• Follow cyclone warnings and evacuate before landfall.
• Raise an alarm and move to safety in immediate danger.
• Floodplain zoning and early warning reduce exposure; drought is prolonged shortage.

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E.V. Ramasamy Periyar founded the Self-Respect Movement in 1925 for rationalism, caste equality, women's rights and Dravidian identity. Self-Respect marriages rejected priestly and caste control. The 1916 Justice Party represented non-Brahmin interests and became Dravidar Kazhagam in 1944.

• Periyar's sequence runs Congress service and Vaikom participation before leadership of the Justice Party.
• V.O.C. founded the Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company; K. Kamaraj became a major Tamil Nadu Congress leader.
• The movement attacked social hierarchy through rational reform, not merely electoral politics.

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Article 324 places elections to Parliament, State Houses, President and Vice-President under the Election Commission. Adult citizenship—not wealth, caste, education or religion—grounds voting, and the electoral roll is the constituency list of eligible voters.

• Sukumar Sen was first CEC and supervised 1951–52 polls.
• By-election fills an early vacancy; Model Code governs campaigning.
• Simultaneous elections means synchronised Lok Sabha and Assembly polls.

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Biodiversity covers genes, species and ecosystems. Endemics occur only in restricted areas; hotspots unite high endemic richness with severe habitat loss, including Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas. In-situ protection retains native habitat.

• Paris goal: well below 2°C, pursuing 1.5°C; modern warming is human-caused.
• Net zero balances emissions/removals; water vapour is greenhouse gas.
• Food webs interlink feeding; biodegradable matter decomposes; extinct means none survive.

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An ecosystem combines organisms and physical environment; biosphere is all life's zone. Producers capture energy, consumers transfer it and decomposers recycle dead matter. Biodiversity includes ecosystems, species and genes.

• Estuary mixes river/sea; Gulf of Mannar has coral, seagrass and dugongs.
• Hotspots combine richness/endemism with threat.
• Afforestation limits erosion; waste order is Reduce, Reuse, Recycle.

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Test subject–verb agreement and fixed comparison/conjunction patterns. 'One/each of the boys' uses a singular verb, and news is singular. Prefer takes 'to', as does senior; though/although should not be paired with but.

• Correct: one of the boys is; each of the boys has; the news is shocking.
• Say cousin, not redundant cousin brother.
• Correct comparisons: prefer tea to coffee; senior to her cousin.

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A thermos blocks conduction/convection, poor conductors make safe handles and solids expand when heated. Fuses melt under excess current; earthing gives faults a low-resistance safety path. A concave dental mirror enlarges nearby teeth.

• Baking soda is sodium bicarbonate; salt raises boiling and lowers freezing points.
• Heaters convert electrical energy to heat.
• Stratosphere contains ozone; thermosphere is a higher ionised layer.

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Articles 14–18 establish equality; Article 19 citizen freedoms, Article 21 life/liberty and Article 32 constitutional remedies. Property now lies in Article 300A rather than Fundamental Rights. High Courts under 226 can enforce both Fundamental and other legal rights.

• Habeas corpus reviews detention; prohibition stops excess jurisdiction.
• Articles 23–24 bar trafficking/forced labour and hazardous child work; 17 abolishes untouchability.
• RTE reserves 25% entry seats for EWS; Human Rights Day is 10 December.

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Tamil Nadu lies south of the Tropic of Cancer between Bay, Indian Ocean and western sea approaches. Nilgiris join the Ghats; Doddabetta is a key summit and Anamalai Hills extend the western highlands. Palk Strait separates Tamil Nadu from Sri Lanka.

• Kaveri enters from Karnataka; Tamiraparani/Papanasam serve Tirunelveli; Kallanai stands on Kaveri.
• Pichavaram/Muthupet are mangroves; Ramanathapuram/Gulf of Mannar coast has coral.
• Neyveli–lignite, Coimbatore–industry, Dindigul–interior; Chennai–Vijayawada follows NH16; bank count is 38 districts.

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Keep a formula sheet: rectangle A=lb,P=2(l+b); triangle A=bh/2; trapezium A=(a+b)h/2; circle C=2πr; cylinder V=πr²h and curved area=2πrh; cube surface=6a²; cuboid volume=lbh.

• Triangle angles total 180°; use Pythagoras for diagonal/displacement.
• Sector area=(θ/360)πr²; clock angle is |30h−5.5m|, smaller angle if asked.
• All squares⊂rectangles⊂quadrilaterals is a valid inclusion chain.

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Select form by sound, function and timeline: 'an honest officer', since for a starting date, past perfect for the earlier past act and past continuous for an interrupted action. Passive makes the active object subject with be + past participle.

• Let us takes 'shall we?'; neither of takes singular; but shows contrast.
• Patterns: gave me a pen = S-V-IO-DO; elected him President = S-V-O-C.
• Enjoy swimming uses gerund; slowly is adverb; highest superlative; reported am becomes was.

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Idioms carry fixed figurative meanings, so match the whole phrase rather than separate words. Proverbs express a general lesson; Tamil–English matching should follow the shared idea, not literal translation.

• Blue moon = rarely; spill beans / let cat out = reveal secret.
• Break ice = start interaction; blessing in disguise = apparent bad that proves good.
• A stitch in time saves nine; face indexes mind; honesty is wisest policy.

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A.O. Hume helped found Congress in 1885. Bengal's 1905 partition led to Swadeshi and was annulled in 1911; Surat split Congress in 1907 and Lucknow reunited constitutional demands in 1916. Gandhi led mass movements from 1920, Civil Disobedience from Dandi in 1930, and Quit India in 1942 after Cripps failed.

• Rowlatt protest culminated at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, in 1919; Gandhi stopped Non-Cooperation after Chauri Chaura.
• Lahore 1929 adopted Purna Swaraj; Gandhi and Ambedkar signed Poona Pact; Mountbatten Plan framed 1947 partition.
• 'Swaraj is my birthright' belongs to Tilak, not Gandhi; Bhagat Singh represents revolutionary nationalism; Ambedkar chaired the Drafting Committee.

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Sanchi's stupa and Ajanta's painted caves are Buddhist monuments; a chaitya is a Buddhist prayer hall. Gandhara fused Buddhist themes with Greco-Roman form, while Amaravati belonged to the Andhra/lower Krishna region. Pallava Mahabalipuram contains the Shore Temple and rock-cut Rathas.

• A gopuram is the entrance tower of Dravidian temples.
• Treaty of Salbai ended the First Anglo-Maratha War; tested mentor order is Socrates–Plato–Aristotle–Alexander.
• The 2004 date in this bank belongs to the modern recognition/event named in its question; keep it separate from ancient chronology.

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Harappan towns used standard burnt brick, grid streets and covered drains; Mohenjo-daro held the Great Bath. Iron was unknown, the script remains undeciphered, and steatite seals carry animals and signs. The civilisation included villages as well as cities.

• Lothal–dockyard; Kalibangan–ploughed field; Dholavira–reservoirs and large signboard.
• Do not confuse Indus evidence with much later figures such as Martin Luther King.
• Urban water management and standardisation are stronger identifiers than claims that every settlement was urban.

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Industrial sites follow inputs, power, workers, routes and markets. Steel follows bulky iron, sugar follows quickly deteriorating cane, textiles develop clusters, and IT as a tertiary service follows skills/connectivity.

• Coimbatore–textiles; Sivakasi–fireworks/matches/printing; Mumbai–cotton textiles.
• Bengaluru is a major information-technology centre.
• Agro industries use farm produce; steel is mineral-based.

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Industry transforms inputs and creates non-farm value. MSMEs create jobs with modest capital; cottage units use local labour and skills, and estates supply common land, roads, power and services. Public enterprises are government owned or controlled.

• SIDBI finances MSMEs; TIDCO co-promotes larger Tamil Nadu projects.
• Clusters: Tiruppur–knitwear, Sivakasi–printing/fireworks/matches, Coimbatore–textiles/engineering.
• FDI brings ownership/control; FPI is passive securities capital; first Industrial Policy Resolution was 1948.

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Inflation is a sustained general price rise and loss of purchasing power. Excess aggregate demand produces demand-pull inflation; higher fuel, wages or materials create cost-push. CPI tracks the retail consumer basket, and index numbers measure price change through time.

• Stagflation combines inflation, unemployment and stagnant output.
• Short-run Phillips Curve gives an inverse inflation–unemployment relation.
• Deflation is a continuing fall in the overall price level.

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Balance of trade is goods exports minus imports; an import excess is deficit. Current account adds services, income and transfers. WTO succeeded GATT in 1995, and MFN normally extends one member's trade concession to all members.

• IMF supports monetary cooperation/BOP needs and created SDRs.
• FDI is controlled long-term investment; portfolio capital lacks management.
• UNDP leads human-development reporting; exports earn foreign exchange.

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Article 124 establishes the Supreme Court; Article 131 gives original jurisdiction in Union–State disputes, and Article 32 enforces rights. Judicial review tests public action against the Constitution, while PIL opens courts to public and disadvantaged causes.

• Kesavananda Bharati created the basic-structure limit.
• NJAC failed because judicial independence is basic structure; High Courts use Article 226.
• President removes a judge after Parliament's required special-majority address.

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Article 40 encourages village government. The 73rd Amendment constitutionalised rural Panchayats in Part IX and Eleventh Schedule; 74th did so for urban municipalities/Twelfth Schedule. Gram Sabha includes every registered village voter.

• Balwant Rai Mehta proposed village, block and district tiers.
• Eleventh Schedule has 29 rural subjects; Twelfth has 18 urban functions.
• Municipal Commissioner is the executive administrative officer in the urban setup.

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Draw family generations and direction arrows; translate substituted operators before using BODMAS. For syllogisms retain only unavoidable conclusions, and for series test multiplication, squares or term×(term+1) patterns across several steps.

• Father's only son may be the male speaker; grandfather's only son is his father.
• North→right→south→left gives east after the tested sequence; cancel opposite walk legs.
• Perfect-square odd-one-out and doubling series require a shared invariant, not visual guesswork.

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The Assembly first met 9 December 1946: Sachchidananda Sinha was temporary chair and Rajendra Prasad permanent President. Nehru moved Objectives Resolution, B.N. Rau advised, and Dr B.R. Ambedkar chaired the Drafting Committee.

• Work took 2 years, 11 months, 18 days; adoption was 26 November 1949.
• Members signed 24 January 1950; commencement was 26 January.
• Match leaders to their exact Assembly roles.

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Mauryan sources pair Kautilya's Arthashastra with Megasthenes' Indica at Chandragupta's court. Ashoka's Kalinga remorse appears in edicts and led to Dhamma centred on tolerance, welfare and moral conduct. Gupta culture advanced literature, mathematics, astronomy, art and fine gold dinaras.

• Harisena wrote the Allahabad Pillar praise of Samudragupta.
• Chandragupta II was Vikramaditya; Aryabhata belongs to the Gupta era.
• Dhauli and the thirteenth Major Rock Edict are tied to Ashoka's Kalinga message.

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Money markets handle short terms: Treasury Bills mature within a year and call money within days. Capital markets provide long finance through shares, bonds and debentures. A share is ownership; bond and debenture holders are creditors.

• Primary market sells new issues; exchanges trade existing securities.
• SEBI regulates securities and protects investors.
• Adam Smith's invisible hand links self-interest with wider market outcomes.

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Renewables replenish naturally; forests/farm goods can renew, fossil fuels cannot on human timescales. Petroleum and gas occupy sedimentary basins, lignite is low-rank coal, bauxite gives aluminium and iron ore gives iron.

• India's EEZ extends 200 nautical miles.
• Mica insulates electricity; Damodar Valley is coal-associated.
• Classify resources by renewal, geological origin and use.

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Use BODMAS and prime factorisation. HCF takes minimum prime powers, LCM maximum; for two numbers product=HCF×LCM. A perfect square needs even exponents and cube multiples of three. Probability=favourable/total.

• Compare fractions by common denominator/cross multiplication; remainder problems use division or modular form.
• For same remainder r under several divisors, number−r is a common multiple.
• Geometric savings halve each year; series rules include ÷3 and successive multipliers.

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Balanced food includes carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, fibre and water. Deficiencies: C–scurvy, D–rickets, iodine–goitre, iron–anaemia. Marasmus is severe malnutrition; ORS replaces diarrhoeal fluid loss.

• Female Anopheles spreads malaria; Aedes spreads dengue.
• Antibiotics target bacteria, not viruses; prions cause CJD.
• Chondrostereum purpureum is the tested fungus; One Health links human, animal and environment.

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Lok Sabha alone introduces Money Bills and tests government confidence; Speaker certifies Money Bills and chairs joint sittings. Rajya Sabha is permanent, chaired by the Vice-President, with one-third retiring every two years. Quorum is one-tenth.

• Rajya Sabha maximum is 250; membership minimum age is 30.
• Zero Hour starts around noon for urgent issues without prior notice; starred questions allow supplements.
• A non-minister brings a Private Member's Bill; adjournment motion raises an urgent definite matter.

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Percentage, ratio and average all reduce to one skill: find the total, then share it. x% of N is (x/100)*N, so 20% of 250 = 50, and a category share is (part/total)*100 — kabaddi 8 of 50 students = 16%. A ratio a:b splits a total into a+b equal parts: boys:girls 3:5 in 40 students means each part is 5, so 15 boys. An average is total/count; when one value changes, adjust the TOTAL, not the average — replacing 24 by 36 among 12 observations of mean 18 adds 12 to the total, so the new mean is 228/12 = 19.

• Ratio to count: divide the total by the sum of parts (27 students at 4:5 gives 27/9 = 3 per part, 12 boys); given one side instead, scale up (18 boys at 3:2 means a part is 6, 30 students in all).
• Changing ratios: keep one variable — boys 5x, girls 4x; after 6 girls join, 4x+6 = 5x, so x = 6 and there are 30 boys.
• Average = total/count (sales 40+55+65+40 = 200 over 4 days is 50/day); a replacement shifts the mean by (new - old)/count.
• Median is the middle value AFTER sorting: for 9,12,15,16,18,20,24 it is the 4th value, 16 — do not confuse it with the mean.

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India's divisions are Himalayas, Indo-Gangetic Plain, Peninsular Plateau, coasts and islands. Himalayan uplift came from Indian–Eurasian collision; Shiwaliks are outer ranges. Peninsular India is ancient crystalline rock.

• Western Ghats are higher/continuous; Eastern Ghats lower and river-cut; Aravallis ancient.
• Sikkim is Himalayan; India lies north of Maldives.
• Ring of Fire follows Pacific margins; great plains derive from Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra.

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Newton's third law gives equal opposite reaction; force changes velocity. Ohm's law V=IR links ampere current and ohm resistance; power is watt. Heat moves by conduction/radiation and black surfaces absorb strongly.

• Convex mirror widens view; concave lens diminishes; twinkling is atmospheric refraction.
• Loudness follows sound intensity; ultrasound exceeds 20 kHz; solar is renewable.
• Bank intrusions: Mangifera indica is mango; Sharbati Sonora is wheat.

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Planning Commission began in 1950: Plan I stressed agriculture/irrigation, while Mahalanobis Plan II stressed heavy industry. NITI Aayog replaced it in 2015 as a policy think tank promoting cooperative federalism without direct plan-fund allocation.

• Inclusive growth reaches poor and marginalised groups.
• Aspirational Districts targets 112 districts; Census is administered by the Registrar General.
• Raj Krishna coined Hindu Rate of Growth; cooperative federalism is Union–State partnership.

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Density equals population divided by square-kilometre area. Census is normally decennial; literacy covers age seven and above, and sex ratio means females per 1,000 males. Jobs and better services drive urban migration.

• Bihar is highly dense; Kerala highly literate in tested comparisons.
• A metropolis is a very large service-rich city.
• Young population becomes dividend only with health, education and work.

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Poverty lines measure minimum consumption; Tendulkar broadened the basket. Open unemployment is no job despite willingness, seasonal unemployment follows work cycles, cyclical unemployment follows downturns, and disguised surplus workers add nearly no output.

• MGNREGA promises a rural household 100 days of unskilled work yearly.
• Lorenz curve depicts inequality; health, skills and education create human capital.
• Dadabhai Naoroji analysed colonial poverty/drain; underemployment wastes labour time or skill.

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'We, the People' makes India's citizens the ultimate source of constitutional authority. Sovereign means full internal/external freedom; republic means an elected head. Liberty expressly covers thought, expression, belief, faith and worship.

• Preamble model came from the United States.
• 42nd Amendment inserted Socialist, Secular and Integrity.
• Constitutional supremacy binds all organs; parliamentary executive answers to legislature.

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Cost price is the anchor: profit% and loss% are always reckoned on CP, while discount is on the marked price and GST on the discounted price. Marked Rs 1000 sold at 10% discount fetches Rs 900 on a CP of Rs 800 — profit 100/800 = 12.5%. A sale at 8% loss for Rs 460 means CP = 460/0.92 = Rs 500, so a 12% profit needs SP = 500 * 1.12 = Rs 560. Simple interest grows linearly (SI = P*R*T/100); compound interest multiplies the principal by (1 + r/100) each year.

• Chained percentages multiply in order: Rs 800 marked, minus 15% discount = Rs 680, plus 10% GST on that = Rs 748 — never add the two percentages.
• SI = P*R*T/100: Rs 5000 at 8% for 2.5 years earns Rs 1000. CI for 2 years at 10% on Rs 10000 = 10000*(1.1^2 - 1) = Rs 2100.
• To recover a principal from a compound amount, divide by (1 + r/100)^t: Rs 14,520 after 2 years at 10% came from 14520/1.21 = Rs 12,000.
• Loss to target profit in two steps: CP = SP/(1 - loss%), then new SP = CP*(1 + profit%); unit-cost splits (3 pencils + 2 erasers) are just totals minus the known part.

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Greased cartridges were the immediate 1857 spark; Dalhousie's Doctrine of Lapse and the 1856 annexation of Awadh added political and social anger. Lord Canning was Governor-General. Savarkar later called the uprising the First War of Indian Independence.

• Centres: Nana Sahib–Kanpur, Hazrat Mahal–Lucknow, Lakshmibai–Jhansi, Kunwar Singh–Bihar.
• Tamil Nadu resistance traditions include the Marudu brothers' Sivaganga proclamation.
• Separate the 1857 revolt from Rowlatt/Jallianwala events of 1919.

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A basin is land drained by a river network. Himalayan streams are snow/monsoon-fed and perennial; most Peninsular rivers are rain-fed. Godavari is longest Peninsular river; Narmada and Tapi flow west.

• Godavari begins near Nashik; Indus in Tibet; Ganga-Brahmaputra makes Sundarbans.
• Kallanai/Grand Anicut is the ancient Kaveri work; Cauvery sharing involves Tamil Nadu/Karnataka.
• Eastern Ghats are river-cut; floodplain zoning reduces losses.

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Sangam age, roughly 300 BCE–300 CE, produced classical Tamil academy poetry divided into Akam love/interior themes and Puram public, heroic and political themes. Tolkappiyam is the earliest surviving grammar; Thirukkural contains 1,330 couplets on aram, porul and inbam.

• Thinai: kurinji–hill, mullai–pasture/forest, marutham–farmland, neithal–coast.
• Puhar was the Chola port and Korkai the Pandya pearl port; Roman coins prove overseas trade.
• Adiyaman was a Sangam chieftain; Asvaghosa wrote Buddhacharita in Sanskrit.

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CRISPR adapts bacterial molecular scissors for precise DNA editing. Vaccines stimulate immunity and bacterial resistance can defeat antibiotics. Biotechnology uses living processes, AI performs human-like tasks and fermentation yields alcohol plus carbon dioxide.

• Reactors control chains; bombs release them explosively; Tarapur is in Maharashtra.
• PARAM represents C-DAC supercomputing; silicon underlies electronics.
• Fuses/lightning conductors protect; fibre uses total internal reflection; LED expands to Light Emitting Diode.

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Series: test difference, ratio, squares and alternating rules; letter series use A=1…Z=26. Coding rules in this bank include +1/+3 shifts, reversal, alphabet positions and Atbash pairs summing 27. Confirm one rule on the entire example.

• Common sequences: ×2; n(n+1); ×2+1; Fibonacci addition; gaps 3,4,5,6.
• Atbash maps A↔Z; +3 maps CODE→FRGH; reversal maps MADURAI→IARUDAM.
• Arithmetic progression has equal gaps, so middle-pair sum can be found from endpoints.

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Rammohan Roy's Brahmo Samaj (1828) promoted monotheism and social reform; Lord William Bentinck abolished sati by regulation. Dayananda founded Arya Samaj, Vivekananda the Ramakrishna Mission, and Phule the Satyashodhak Samaj; Vidyasagar championed widow remarriage.

• Prarthana Samaj worked mainly in western India; Narayana Guru preached social equality.
• Moovalur Ramamirtham Ammaiyar fought women's exploitation and the devadasi system in Tamil society.
• The 1919 Act introduced dyarchy; Munro's Ryotwari settlement dealt directly with cultivators.

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River alluvium forms fertile plains and paddy deltas. Basalt-derived black regur holds moisture and suits cotton. Iron oxide colours red soil; hot wet leaching creates acidic, nutrient-poor laterite.

• Rice needs abundant warmth and water.
• Bhabar is porous foothill pebble ground where streams disappear.
• Terraces/contours reduce runoff; shifting cultivation occurs in north-east India.

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Chandrayaan-3 soft-landed near the lunar south pole; Mangalyaan orbited Mars and Aditya-L1 observes from Earth-Sun L1. PSLV is an ISRO launcher, and Earth's escape speed is about 11.2 km/s.

• Geostationary orbit matches Earth rotation; polar orbit crosses near poles.
• Agni-V exceeds 5,000 km; Tejas is HAL's indigenous light fighter.
• JWST is NASA with ESA/CSA; radar reflects radio waves; 5G lowers latency.

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Spell by stable chunks and word families. Accommodation/accommodate use double c and m; committee doubles m, t and e; receive uses ei after c. Separate contains 'par', and occasion uses double c but one s.

• Core list: accommodation, accommodate, receive, committee, environment.
• Also retain separate, definitely and occasion.
• Check every consonant and vowel against meaning before choosing a near-looking distractor.

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The President appoints the Governor, who appoints the Chief Minister; real authority rests with CM and ministers collectively responsible to Assembly. Tamil Nadu is unicameral, retaining only its 234-seat Legislative Assembly.

• A Legislative Council is the upper House where bicameralism exists.
• Governor serves during President's pleasure.
• Presidential electoral college uses elected MPs and elected MLAs, not nominees/MLCs.

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Tamil Nadu combines Chennai vehicles, Tiruppur textiles, Coimbatore engineering, TIDEL information technology and agriculture. SIPCOT builds major industrial parks; SIDCO supports small industries. Self Help Groups extend women's saving, credit and livelihood activity.

• Noon meals improve nutrition and attendance; maternity aid offsets nutrition cost and wage loss.
• Match agency: SIPCOT–large parks, SIDCO–small industry, TIDEL–IT.
• Tested petroleum-reserve sites are Visakhapatnam, Mangaluru and Padur.

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Tamil nationalism used armed resistance, enterprise, labour, poetry and satyagraha. Kattabomman resisted at Panchalankurichi; V.O.C. created the 1906 Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company and backed the Coral Mill strike; Rajaji led the 1930 Vedaranyam Salt March.

• Bharati wrote for Indian freedom, equality, women and Tamil pride; Periyar earned 'Vaikom Hero' in the temple-road struggle.
• When chronology is asked, place early Palayakkarar resistance before Swadeshi enterprise, labour action and 1930 salt satyagraha.
• Bank duration/order questions must be solved from their listed events; do not replace India-wide and Tamil Nadu-specific milestones.

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Use d=st and convert km/h to m/s by ×5/18. A train crosses a pole over its own length and a platform over combined lengths. Equal-distance average speed is 2uv/(u+v); opposite-direction separation uses sum of speeds.

• Fixed work means workers×days constant; fixed distance makes time inverse to speed.
• Boat stream speed=(downstream−upstream)/2; still-water speed=(sum)/2.
• Wheel revolutions=distance/circumference; speed +25% cuts time 20%, speed −20% raises time 25%.

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Roads offer flexible access, rail moves bulk, ports handle trade and satellites relay TV, telecom and weather. NH44 spans Srinagar–Kanyakumari; NH16 runs the east coast through Chennai–Vijayawada; Golden Quadrilateral joins four metros.

• Hormuz is the imported-oil passage; Konkan Railway follows west coast.
• Pamban connects mainland Tamil Nadu to Rameswaram.
• Mumbai is western port, Kolkata eastern river port; sugar mills stay near cane.

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The President is constitutional Union head, elected by elected MPs and State MLAs; the Prime Minister leads ministers responsible to Lok Sabha. A President resigns to the Vice-President, who chairs Rajya Sabha.

• Article 72 grants presidential pardons; Attorney General is highest Union law officer.
• Emergency needs written Cabinet advice and gives the Union wider power.
• A presidential ordinance temporarily has parliamentary-law force.

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Rig Vedic society centred on kula, jana and cattle; bali was a voluntary chiefly offering, gavishti a cattle quest, and Sabha/Samiti assemblies. Later Vedic settlement expanded with iron and farming in the Ganga plain as varna and royal sacrifice became more elaborate.

• Rig is earliest; Sama supplies sung ritual chants; Atharva contains charms, healing and daily rites.
• Satyameva Jayate is from Mundaka Upanishad; Indra is Purandara, destroyer of forts.
• Use pastoral markers for Early Vedic and iron, Janapadas and settled agriculture for Later Vedic.

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Match both meaning and part of speech. Synonyms include abundant–plentiful, courageous–brave, brief–short; antonyms include optimistic–pessimistic, conceal–reveal and generous–stingy. Treat phrasal verbs as units.

• Look after = care for; put off = postpone.
• Polyglot knows languages; aviary houses birds; poet writes poems.
• il- negates legal, re- means again; criterion plural is criteria; moonlight is noun+noun.

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தமிழ் எழுத்துகள்: உயிர் 12, மெய் 18, உயிர்மெய் 216, ஆய்தம் ஃ ஒன்று; மொத்தம் 247. க் ச் ட் த் ப் ற் வல்லினம்; ய் இடையினம். பொருளின் பெயர் பெயர்ச்சொல், செயலைக் குறிப்பது வினைச்சொல், பண்பைக் குறிப்பது உரிச்சொல்.

• ‘சென்றேன்’ வினை; மரம் என்பதன் பன்மை மரங்கள்.
• வேற்றுமை: புத்தகத்தை–ஐ, மலரால்–ஆல், அவளுக்கு–கு/க்கு.
• ‘அவர்கள் வந்தார்கள்’, ‘ஒரு ஆடு’ சரி; எழுவாய்-வினை/எண்ணிக்கை இயைபைச் சரிபார்.

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நூல்–ஆசிரியர்: திருக்குறள்–திருவள்ளுவர், சிலப்பதிகாரம்–இளங்கோ அடிகள், மணிமேகலை–சீத்தலைச் சாத்தனார், கம்பராமாயணம்–கம்பர், ஆத்திச்சூடி–அவ்வையார், பெரியபுராணம்–சேக்கிழார், திருவாசகம்–மாணிக்கவாசகர், திருப்பாவை–ஆண்டாள்.

• திருநாவுக்கரசர் தேவார நாயன்மார்; பாரதி மகாகவி, பாரதிதாசன் பாவேந்தர், இராமலிங்கம் பிள்ளை நாமக்கல் கவிஞர்.
• ஐங்குறுநூறு–எட்டுத்தொகை; திருக்குறள்–பதினெண்கீழ்க்கணக்கு.
• குறிஞ்சி–மலை, முல்லை–காடு/மேய்ச்சல், மருதம்–வயல், நெய்தல்–கடல்; அகம்/புறம் பொருளை வேறுபடுத்து.

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முதலில் வினா இணைச்சொலையா எதிர்ச்சொலையா எனக் காண்க. இணைச்சொல் நெருங்கிய பொருளையும் எதிர்ச்சொல் முரண்பட்ட பொருளையும் தரும். தேர்ந்த சொல்லை மூலச் சொல்லுக்குப் பதிலாக வைத்து சூழலுடன் பொருந்துகிறதா எனப் பார்க்கவும்.

• இணை: அழகு–வனப்பு, வீரம்–துணிவு, அறிவு–ஞானம், அச்சம்–பயம், விரைவு–வேகம், நட்பு–தோழமை.
• இணை: கடல்–சமுத்திரம், மலர்–பூ.
• எதிர்: இன்பம்–துன்பம், இருள்–ஒளி, உயரம்–தாழ்வு, மென்மை–கடினம், பகை–நட்பு, வறுமை–செல்வம், பழைமை–புதுமை.

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முதலில் பத்தியின் மையக்கருத்தை அறிந்து, பின்னர் கேள்வியின் முக்கியச் சொல்லுடன் பொருந்தும் வரியைத் தேடு. ‘அல்லாதது’ போன்ற எதிர்மறைச் சொல்லைக் கவனி. வெளித் தகவலைச் சேர்க்காமல் பத்தி கூறியதை மட்டும் விடையாக்கு.

• மரம் தருவது நிழல்/கனி/மருந்து/காற்று; நூலகம் அறிவு; கடற்கரைத் தொழில் மீன்பிடி.
• கருத்துகள்: நேர மதிப்பு, மழைநீர் சேகரிப்பு, தூய்மை, நண்பரின் துணை, பெண்கல்வி.
• திருக்குறள் மூன்று பால்; இயற்கை வாழ்வியல் ஐந்திணை; விலக்கு வினாவில் உதவாத செயலைத் தேர்வு செய்.

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பழமொழியைச் சொற்பொருளாக மட்டும் கொள்ளாமல் அதன் வாழ்க்கை நெறியை அறி; மரபுத்தொடருக்கு வழக்கில் நிலைத்த பொருளைத் தேர்வு செய். அவசரம், ஒற்றுமை, அனுபவம், ஆராய்ச்சி போன்ற சுட்டிகளை உரிய கூற்றுடன் இணை.

• அவசரம்–அவசரப்பட்டால் அம்மியும் நகராது; ஒற்றுமை–ஒன்றுபட்டால் உண்டு வாழ்வு; சேமிப்பு–சிறு துளி பெரு வெள்ளம்.
• காக்கை–தாய்ப்பாசம்; கற்றது கைமண்–முடிவற்ற கற்றல்; ஆற்றில் இறங்கினால்–அனுபவம்.
• கை கொடுத்தல்–உதவி; மனம் மலர்தல்–மகிழ்ச்சி; கை கழுவுதல்–முழுமையாக விலகுதல்.

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