Samacheer Class 10 Social Science - Central Government

A mock parliament should include role assignment, a simple agenda (e.g., one bill), rules for debate and voting, and a post-activity discussion on constitutional roles: President—constitutional head with certain powers; Prime Minister—real executive leader; Ministers—run ministries and are collectively responsible to Lok Sabha.

Present as a table or bullets: list 3–4 similarities (head of state, commander‑in‑chief, veto and impeachment) and 5–6 differences (mode of election, executive authority, term length, role as head of government, extent of discretionary powers).

List of Presidents (since 1950) with approximate order: 1. Dr. Rajendra Prasad (1950–62) 2. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan (1962–67) 3. Dr. Zakir Hussain (1967–69) 4. V. V. Giri (acting 1969; elected 1969–74) 5. Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed (1974–77) 6. B. D. Jatti (acting President, 1977) 7. Neelam Sanjiva Reddy (1977–82) 8. Giani Zail Singh (1982–87) 9. R. Venkataraman (1987–92) 10. Shankar Dayal Sharma (1992–97) 11. K. R. Narayanan (1997–2002) 12. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam (2002–07) 13. Pratibha Patil (2007–12) 14. Pranab Mukherjee (2012–17) 15. Ram Nath Kovind (2017–22) 16. Droupadi Murmu (2022–present). List of Prime Ministers (since Independence): 1. Jawaharlal Nehru (1947–64) 2. Gulzarilal Nanda (acting twice: 1964, 1966) 3. Lal Bahadur Shastri (1964–66) 4. Indira Gandhi (1966–77; 1980–84) 5. Morarji Desai (1977–79) 6. Charan Singh (1979–80) 7. Rajiv Gandhi (1984–89) 8. V. P. Singh (1989–90) 9. Chandra Shekhar (1990–91) 10. P. V. Narasimha Rao (1991–96) 11. Atal Bihari Vajpayee (1996; 1998–2004) 12. H. D. Deve Gowda (1996–97) 13. I. K. Gujral (1997–98) 14. Manmohan Singh (2004–14) 15. Narendra Modi (2014–present).

The President is elected indirectly by an electoral college of elected MPs (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha) and elected MLAs of states and specified Union territories, by secret ballot and single transferable vote; votes are weighted to maintain parity between Parliament and states.

At the Union level ministers are classified into: (1) Cabinet Ministers — senior ministers who head major ministries and are members of the Cabinet; (2) Ministers of State with independent charge — junior ministers who head specific ministries but are not in the Cabinet; (3) Ministers of State — junior ministers who assist Cabinet Ministers and work under their supervision. (Historically 'Deputy Ministers' existed but are not in current usage.)

Definition and features: Under Article 110 of the Constitution a Money Bill contains provisions dealing with imposition, abolition, remission, alteration or regulation of taxes; borrowing by the government; custody of Consolidated Fund/Contingency Fund; expenditure charged on the Consolidated Fund; and matters incidental to these. A Money Bill can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha; the Speaker certifies a bill as a Money Bill. Rajya Sabha cannot amend it, only recommend changes within 14 days; the Lok Sabha may accept or reject those recommendations. The President’s assent is required for it to become law.

Two special powers: (1) Right of audience — the Attorney General has the right to appear and plead on behalf of the Government of India in all courts, including the Supreme Court. (2) Advisory role — he/she advises the Government on important legal matters and may represent the Union in important cases. (Note: The AG can also participate in Parliament’s proceedings (without vote) and refer government legal questions to the courts.)

Qualifications (Article 124(3)): A person appointed as a Supreme Court judge must be a citizen of India and fulfill one of the following: (i) have been a judge of one or more High Courts for at least five years, or (ii) have been an advocate of a High Court or of two or more such Courts in succession for at least ten years, or (iii) be, in the opinion of the President, a distinguished jurist.

Executive powers include appointments (PM, ministers, governors, judges via specified procedures), command of armed forces, foreign relations, summoning/dissolving Parliament, granting assent to bills and promulgating ordinances. Judicial powers include the clemency powers under Article 72 (pardon, commute, remit, suspend sentences) and the power to seek the Supreme Court's advisory opinion under Article 143.

Major duties and functions: (1) Head of Government and leader of Council of Ministers — directs government policy and presides over Cabinet meetings. (2) Principal advisor to the President — advises on appointment of ministers, governors, and other key officials; recommends President’s actions like dissolution of Lok Sabha. (3) Allocation of portfolios and formation of Cabinet — selects ministers and distributes responsibilities. (4) Coordination and supervision — ensures implementation of policies across ministries and coordinates inter-ministerial work. (5) Parliamentary leadership — leads the ruling party in Parliament, answers questions, and ensures passage of government bills. (6) Foreign affairs and representation — represents India abroad and negotiates or authorizes treaties (formally ratified by the President/Government). (7) Chair of cabinet committees — sets agenda and decisions for major policy areas. (8) Crisis management and national security — plays a central role in security and emergency decisions.

Powers and functions: (1) Legislative power — enacts laws on subjects in the Union, Concurrent lists and on residuary subjects for the whole country. (2) Financial control — authorises taxation and government expenditure; approves the budget and Money Bills. (3) Oversight of the executive — through question hour, motions, debates, no-confidence motions and parliamentary committees. (4) Constituent power — can amend the Constitution (subject to basic structure limits). (5) Judicial and disciplinary functions — impeachment of the President, removal of judges, and privileges for breach. (6) Electoral functions — Parliament participates in election of the President and elects members to certain bodies. Critical examination: Strengths — democratic legitimacy, collective decision-making, law-making authority, checks on executive through committees and debates. Weaknesses — increasing executive dominance (government majority controls legislative agenda), frequent disruptions and low productivity, party discipline limiting independent scrutiny, delayed or poor quality of legislation at times, and inadequate scrutiny of delegated legislation. Overall, Parliament is constitutionally powerful but its effectiveness depends on practice, norms, and institutional reforms.

Three jurisdictions explained: (1) Original jurisdiction — the Supreme Court hears disputes between the Union and one or more States or between States (Article 131). (2) Appellate jurisdiction — hears appeals against judgments of High Courts and other courts in civil, criminal and constitutional matters (under Articles 132–136). (3) Advisory jurisdiction — under Article 143 the President may refer questions of law or fact of public importance to the Supreme Court for its opinion. (Also important is writ jurisdiction under Article 32 for enforcement of fundamental rights.)